The Limits of Science: Science, Scientism and a Theistic Universe [Sermon]

June 2026, Krabi, Thailand

https://youtu.be/N-ZeinjBZhM

Science is a rigorous method of empirical investigation grounded in observation, experimentation, and the testing of falsifiable hypotheses. It relies on systematic evidence-gathering and peer review to build knowledge about the natural world.

Science vs Theology on Authority

Science vs Scientism

Scientism is the view that natural sciences are the only legitimate way of obtaining knowledge of reality. It claims that if something cannot be tested through the scientific method, it is not genuine knowledge.

The Limitations of Science (What Science Cannot Explain)

I. FOUNDATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE & RATIONALITY

1. The Epistemological Foundation of Science

Why the scientific method assumes uniformity of nature, logical inference, and reliable reason

2. The Basis for Rationality and Truth

Why mind-world correspondence exists; why truth exists at all

3. The Reliability of Human Reasoning About Non-Empirical Matters

How we have justified confidence in reasoning about metaphysics, mathematics, and logic

4. The Origin and Intelligibility of Mathematical Truth

Why abstract mathematics so precisely describes physical reality

II. METAPHYSICS & EXISTENCE

5. The Cosmological Question: Why Anything Exists

What explains the existence of contingent reality and the laws of physics

6. Fine-Tuning of Physical Constants

Why universal constants are calibrated to permit life

7. The Origin of Biological Information

How specified, complex information arises in genetic systems

III. CONSCIOUSNESS & AGENCY

8. The Problem of Consciousness

Why subjective experience cannot be fully reduced to physical processes

9. Free Will and Moral Responsibility

How genuine human agency coexists with physical determinism

IV. ETHICS & VALUES

10. The Origin of Objective Moral Values

What grounds objective morality independent of evolution or preference

11. Human Dignity and Rights

What grounds intrinsic human worth and universal rights

12. Guilt, Redemption, and Moral Restoration

Why humans experience guilt and whether genuine restoration is possible

13. Conscience and Moral Obligation

The inner compulsion toward right action and binding moral duties

V. MEANING & TRANSCENDENCE

14. Meaning and Purpose in Human Existence

Why human life has significance and direction in a random universe

15. The Universality of Religious Experience

Why humans across all cultures seek transcendence

16. Beauty and Aesthetic Experience

Why beauty has non-utilitarian power and inspires transcendence

VI. HISTORICAL & THEOLOGICAL

17. The Issue of Miracles and the Historical Resurrection of Jesus

The best explanation for disciples' transformation and early Christianity's growth

18. The Problem of Evil and Suffering

How to reconcile evil with an omnipotent, good God

The Origin of the Universe

1. An Eternal Universe

2. The Evidence for a Temporal Beginning

a. The Expansion of the Universe

Einstein's relativity (1915): Space and time are linked and dynamic.

Lemaître (1927): predicted that the universe is expanding.

Hubble (1929): Observed that distant galaxies are moving away from us, and farther ones move faster.

b. Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMB)

3. The Big Bang (Temporal Beginning)

a. Mathematical Frameworks For The Big Bang

Framework /Equation	Originator(s)	Year	Purpose	Key Equation(s)	Role in Big Bang
General Relativity (Field Equations)	Albert Einstein	1915	Describes gravity as curvature of spacetime; foundation for all cosmological models	Gμν + Λgμν = (8πG/c⁴)Tμν	Foundational: Shows spacetime can expand/contract; enables dynamic universe solutions
Schwarzschild Metric	Karl Schwarzschild	1916	Describes spacetime around a spherical mass; earliest exact solution to Einstein equations	ds² = -(1-2GM/c²r)c²dt² + (1-2GM/c²r)⁻¹dr² + r²(dθ² + sin²θdφ²)	Foundation for understanding gravitational physics; precursor to cosmological metrics
Friedmann Equations	Alexander Friedmann	1922	Describe expansion/contraction rate of universe; relate expansion to density	(da/dt)²/a² = (8πGρ/3) - k/a² + Λ/3 and d²a/dt² = -(4πG/3)(ρ + 3p/c²)a + (Λ/3)a	Core equations for Big Bang cosmology - govern how universe expands from initial singularity
Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker (FLRW) Metric	Friedmann, Lemaître, Robertson, Walker	1922-1936	Describes geometry of homogeneous, isotropic expanding universe	ds² = -c²dt² + a(t)²[dr²/(1-kr²) + r²(dθ² + sin²θdφ²)]	Describes the spacetime of expanding universe - mathematical foundation for all Big Bang models
Lemaitre's Primeval Atom Solution	Georges Lemaître	1927-1931	Applied Friedmann equations to predict universe began from single point	Solution to Friedmann equations with finite initial radius → 0	Theoretical foundation of Big Bang concept - shows universe must have had a beginning
Hubble's Law (Observational)	Edwin Hubble	1929	Empirical relationship between distance and recession velocity	v = H₀d (where H₀ ≈ 70 km/s/Mpc)	Observational confirmation - proves Friedmann/Lemaître predictions correct
Cosmological Constant (Λ)	Einstein, Friedmann, others	1915-1920s	Term in Einstein equations representing vacuum energy density	Λgμν term in Einstein field equations	Becomes critical in modern Big Bang: explains accelerating expansion (dark energy)
Equation of State for Matter	Various	1920s+	Relates pressure to density for different substances	p = wρc² (where w varies: w=0 for matter, w=1/3 for radiation)	Determines how universe expands in different eras: radiation-dominated, matter-dominated
Conservation Laws in Expanding Universe	Friedmann, others	1920s	Energy and momentum conservation in expanding spacetime	dρ/da + 3(ρ+p/c²)/a = 0	Describes how density changes as the universe expands
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN) Equations	Alpher, Gamow, Herman	1948	Describes nuclear reactions in early hot universe	Boltzmann equations for nuclear reaction rates: dn/dt = ...	Predicts light element abundances (H, He, Li) from first 3 minutes
Thermal History of Universe	Gamow, others	1948	Evolution of temperature/energy as universe expands	T(t) ∝ 1/√t for radiation-dominated era	Shows how temperature drops as universe expands from initial hot state
Boltzmann Equation (Cosmological)	Boltzmann; applied by Gamow	1920s-1948	Describes distribution of particles and radiation in early universe	∂f/∂t + v·∇f + F·∇v f = C[f] (collision term)	Governs particle behavior in extreme early universe conditions
Radiative Transfer Equations	Various	1950s+	Describes photon propagation through expanding universe	dI/ds = -κI + (emissivity)	Used to model CMB formation and propagation
Inflation Theory (Scalar Field)	Alan Guth, Andrei Linde	1980-1986	Describes exponential expansion in first fraction of second	φ̈ + 3H φ̇ + dV/dφ = 0 (scalar field equation)	Solves flatness, horizon, and monopole problems; explains universe's initial conditions
Scalar Potential (Inflation)	Guth, Linde, others	1980+	Energy density driving inflation	V(φ) - various potentials (chaotic, new, hybrid inflation)	Determines exact inflationary dynamics and perturbations
Perturbation Theory (Linear)	Lifshitz, Bardeen, others	1946-1980	Describes small density fluctuations in expanding universe	δk̈ + 2H δk̇ + (k²/a² + d²V/dφ²) δk = 0	Explains how small quantum fluctuations grew into galaxies
Power Spectrum of Perturbations	Mukhanov, Chibisov, Guth, others	1981-1985	Distribution of fluctuation amplitudes across scales	P(k) ∝ k^n (where n ≈ 1 for scale-invariant spectrum)	Predicts pattern of density fluctuations observed in CMB and galaxy distribution
Einstein-de Sitter Model	Einstein, de Sitter	1917-1932	Simple cosmological model: flat, matter-dominated, no dark energy	a(t) ∝ t^(2/3)	Historically important; approximation for universe before dark energy discovered
Λ-CDM Model (Standard Cosmological Model)	Many contributors (Perlmutter, Riess, et al.)	1998+	Current best-fit model: Λ (dark energy) + Cold Dark Matter + baryons	Friedmann equations with Λ, Ωm ≈ 0.3, ΩΛ ≈ 0.7, Ωk ≈ 0	Modern Big Bang framework - describes 13.8 billion year cosmic evolution
Quantum Field Theory (QFT) in Curved Spacetime	Hawking, DeWitt, others	1970s+	Describes quantum fields in expanding spacetime	[φ(x),π(x')] = iℏδ(x-x') (field commutation relations in curved space)	Explains particle creation in early universe; basis for inflation quantum fluctuations
Quantum Gravity (Loop Quantum Cosmology)	Ashtekar, Bojowald	2000s+	Attempts to quantize spacetime geometry itself	Difference equations replacing differential equations at Planck scale	Addresses singularity problem: suggests bounce instead of infinite density at t=0
Inflationary Perturbation Spectrum	Mukhanov, others	1985+	Quantum fluctuations during inflation become classical perturbations	δφk(η) = (H/√2k³ω)[ηk aₖ + ηk† aₖ†]	Explains origin of seed fluctuations for all structure in universe
Recombination Physics	Peebles, Zeldovich, others	1960s-1990s	Describes when electrons bind to nuclei; universe becomes transparent	Saha equation for ionization balance; radiative transfer	Explains formation of CMB; describes era 380,000 years after Big Bang
Dark Energy Equation of State	Observational cosmology	1998+	Characterizes mysterious accelerating expansion component	w = p/ρc² ≈ -1 for dark energy (or possibly varying)	Essential for modern Big Bang: universe's fate depends on dark energy properties
Distance Measures in Expanding Universe	Hogg, others	1990s+	Different distance definitions in curved, expanding spacetime	Comoving distance, luminosity distance, angular diameter distance	Allows precise comparison of observations at different redshifts
Redshift-Distance Relation	Lemaitre, Hubble; formalized later	1920s-1950s	Converts observed redshift to distance and lookback time	z = a₀/a - 1 (redshift-scale factor relation)	Allows us to see back in time; fundamental observational tool
Age of Universe from Hubble Constant	Hubble, Lemaître, Gamow	1929+	Calculate cosmic age from current expansion rate	t₀ ≈ 1/H₀ (simplified; more complex with dark energy)	Determines that Big Bang occurred ~13.8 billion years ago
Baryon Acoustic Oscillations (BAO)	Peebles, others; observed by SDSS	1970s-2005	Sound waves in early plasma leave imprint in galaxy distribution	Characteristic scale ~150 Mpc (comoving) from primordial sound speed	Provides "standard ruler" to measure cosmic expansion history

b. Confirmation of the Big Bang

Prediction	Predicted By	Year	Observation/Finding	Observed By	Year	Match?
Universe is expanding	Lemaître	1927	Galaxies receding with distance-velocity relationship (v = H₀d)	Hubble, others	1929–present	✓ Confirmed
Universe had a beginning (primeval atom)	Lemaître	1927–1931	Backward extrapolation shows all matter compressed to single point ~13.8 billion years ago	Cosmological calculations	1960s–present	✓ Confirmed
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) exists	Gamow, Alpher, Herman	1948	Isotropic microwave radiation detected from all directions in space	Penzias & Wilson, others	1964–present	✓ Confirmed
CMB temperature ~5 Kelvin	Alpher & Herman	1948	CMB temperature measured at 2.7 Kelvin (−270.5°C)	Penzias & Wilson, Planck satellite	1964–2018	~ Close
Helium abundance ~25% of primordial matter	Alpher & Gamow (BBN)	1948	Measured He abundance in old stars and gas clouds: 23–25% by mass	Spectroscopy, Hubble observations	1960s–present	✓ Confirmed
Deuterium abundance (heavy hydrogen) in specific ratio	BBN (Alpher, Gamow, Herman)	1948	Deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio matches BBN predictions within 10%	Spectrography, radio telescopes	1970s–present	✓ Confirmed
Lithium-7 abundance in primordial abundance	BBN (Alpher, Gamow)	1948	Observed Li-7 abundance in oldest stars; subtle discrepancy with theory (lithium problem)	Stellar spectroscopy	1990s–present	~ Tension
CMB should be almost perfectly isotropic (uniform)	Friedmann, Lemaître (FLRW)	1922–1927	CMB isotropy confirmed to 1 part in 100,000; tiny anisotropies detected	COBE, WMAP, Planck	1992–2018	✓ Confirmed
CMB temperature varies slightly with direction (dipole)	Cosmological models	1970s	Dipole anisotropy detected: one direction ~3K, opposite ~2.4K (Earth's motion relative to CMB)	COBE, WMAP	1977–1990s	✓ Confirmed
CMB anisotropies have specific power spectrum (acoustic peaks)	Inflation theory (Mukhanov, others)	1985	Three acoustic peaks observed in CMB power spectrum at predicted scales (150 Mpc)	BOOMERANG, WMAP, Planck	2000–2018	✓ Confirmed
Age of universe calculable from Hubble constant	Hubble, cosmology	1929	Universe age calculated: 13.8 ± 0.02 billion years (from H₀ and Λ-CDM model)	Planck, other surveys	2013–present	✓ Confirmed
Universe is spatially flat (Ωk ≈ 0)	Inflation theory (Guth, Linde)	1980–1986	Spatial curvature measured: |Ωk| < 0.005 (essentially flat)	WMAP, Planck, BAO	2003–2018	✓ Confirmed
Inflation smooths out inhomogeneities and produces flatness	Guth, Linde, others	1980–1986	Universe observed to be remarkably homogeneous and flat on large scales	Galaxy surveys, CMB observations	1990s–present	✓ Confirmed
Quantum fluctuations during inflation seed density perturbations	Inflationary cosmology	1985	CMB anisotropies match predicted power spectrum from inflation-generated perturbations	WMAP, Planck	2003–2018	✓ Confirmed
Primordial perturbation spectrum should be nearly scale-invariant	Inflationary theory	1985	Power spectrum exponent measured: ns = 0.961 ± 0.013 (nearly 1 = scale-invariant)	Planck	2018	✓ Confirmed
Galaxy distribution traces matter density fluctuations	Perturbation theory	1946+	Large-scale galaxy distribution matches predicted density power spectrum from CMB anisotropies	SDSS, 2dF, others	2000s–present	✓ Confirmed
Baryon Acoustic Oscillations (BAO) at ~150 Mpc scale	Peebles, others	1970s (predicted); 2005 (observed)	Sound wave imprint in galaxy distribution confirmed at 147.7 ± 3.8 Mpc	SDSS, DES, others	2005–present	✓ Confirmed
Small-scale density perturbations grow into galaxies and clusters	Structure formation theory	1970s+	Simulations match observed galaxy distributions; first galaxies form ~200 million years after Big Bang	N-body simulations, JWST	1990s–present	✓ Confirmed
Distant galaxies are younger/different from nearby ones	BBT predictions	1990s	Distant (old) galaxies look morphologically different, more chaotic, still assembling	Hubble Deep Field, JWST	1995–present	✓ Confirmed
Expansion accelerating due to dark energy (Λ)	Einstein (1917), rediscovered cosmology	1998	Type Ia supernovae dimmer than expected; expansion rate increasing	Perlmutter, Riess, Schmidt	1998–present	✓ Confirmed
Dark energy comprises ~68% of universe's energy density	Λ-CDM model	1998	Multiple probes (SNe, CMB, BAO) converge: ΩΛ ≈ 0.683 ± 0.005	Planck, Pantheon survey	2018	✓ Confirmed
Dark matter comprises ~27% of universe's energy density	Structure formation theory; Vera Rubin	1970s–1998	Galaxy rotation curves, gravitational lensing, CMB anisotropies all require dark matter	Multiple observations	1978–present	✓ Confirmed
Radiation-dominated era in early universe	BBN, Friedmann equations	1948	Big Bang Nucleosynthesis predictions consistent with era when radiation dominated	Theoretical consistency	1960s+	✓ Consistent
Matter-dominated era follows radiation era	Friedmann equations	1922+	Transition occurred ~60,000 years after Big Bang; current universe matter-dominated	Cosmological models	Calculated from theory	✓ Consistent
Recombination occurs ~380,000 years after Big Bang	Peebles, Zeldovich	1965–1970s	CMB last-scattering surface at redshift z ≈ 1,089; occurs at calculated epoch	WMAP, Planck	2003–2018	✓ Confirmed
Universe opaque before recombination, transparent after	Recombination physics	1960s+	Cannot see beyond CMB (z > 1,089); universe fully ionized before z ≈ 1,089	Direct observation limit	Observed fact	✓ Confirmed
Gravitational lensing distorts distant galaxy images	General Relativity (Einstein, 1916)	1916	Massive structures bend light from distant objects; observed extensively	HST, Planck, galaxy surveys	1990s–present	✓ Confirmed
Gravitational waves from early universe imprinted on CMB	Inflation theory	1985	Search ongoing for primordial B-mode polarization; tight limits from Planck	Planck, future experiments	2018–ongoing	~ Pending
CMB polarization consistent with Thomson scattering	Cosmological models	1990s	E-mode polarization detected; pattern matches predictions	WMAP, Planck	2006–2018	✓ Confirmed
Hubble tension: H₀ discrepancy between early and late universe	Observed discrepancy	2019+	CMB predicts H₀ ≈ 67 km/s/Mpc; supernovae measure ≈ 73 km/s/Mpc (5σ tension)	Planck, local measurements	2019–present	✗ Tension
Matter density Ωm ≈ 0.315 (baryons + dark matter)	Λ-CDM model fitting	1998	Multiple probes converge: Ωm ≈ 0.315 ± 0.007	Planck, galaxy surveys	2018	✓ Confirmed
Baryon density Ωb ≈ 0.049 (ordinary matter)	BBN predictions, Λ-CDM	1948 (BBN); 1998 (Λ-CDM)	Baryon density constrained by BBN and CMB: Ωb ≈ 0.0493 ± 0.0008	Planck	2018	✓ Confirmed

4. The Cosmological Argument

Everything that begins to exist has a cause.

The universe began to exist.

Therefore, the universe has a cause.

Must be uncaused (or infinite regress occurs)

Must be timeless or eternal

Must be necessary rather than contingent

Must possess sufficient power to create the universe

The Argument from Beauty

Beauty is the quality of being pleasing, attractive, or aesthetically satisfying to the senses or mind.

Different kinds of Beauty

Physical Beauty

Artistic Beauty

Intellectual Beauty  

Natural Beauty

Character Beauty

How can we explain beauty?

1. The Explanatory Gap in Aesthetic Neuroscience

2. The Problem of Excessive Beauty

3. The Meaning-Bestowing Function of Beauty

The books or the music in which we thought the beauty was located will betray us if we trust to them; it was not in them, it only came through them, and what came through them was longing. These things—the beauty, the memory of our own past—are good images of what we really desire; but if they are mistaken for the thing itself, they turn into dumb idols, breaking the hearts of their worshippers. For they are not the thing itself; they are only the scent of a flower we have not found, the echo of a tune we have not heard, news from a country we have never yet visited. C. S. Lewis, The Weight of Glory.